The Selank peptide represents a cutting-edge frontier in the world of cognitive and emotional regulation. In a landscape filled with harsh stimulants and sedating anxiety solutions, this unique compound offers a different path. It promises a state of calm, clear-headed focus, a mental space where productivity flows effortlessly without the jitters of caffeine or the fog of traditional tranquilizers. For researchers exploring the intricate dance between anxiety and cognition, Selank is a subject of immense interest and potential.
At Oath Research, we’re dedicated to exploring the science behind compounds that push the boundaries of human potential. Selank is a prime example, a molecule that targets the very core of our neurological and immunological systems to foster a state of optimal wellbeing. Let’s dive deep into what makes this particular neuropeptide so compelling for modern research.
What is Selank? The Science Behind the Neuropeptide
To understand Selank, you first need to understand its origin. Selank is a synthetic version of a naturally occurring peptide in the human body called tuftsin. Tuftsin is a small peptide primarily known for its role in the immune system, where it helps stimulate phagocytic cells—the “clean-up crew” that engulfs cellular debris and pathogens.
Developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, researchers took the base tuftsin molecule and added a sequence of three additional amino acids (Proline-Glycine-Proline). This modification was designed to increase its stability and allow it to cross the blood-brain barrier more effectively, giving it profound effects on the central nervous system that tuftsin alone does not possess.
The result is a fascinating dual-action compound. It retains some of the immunomodulatory effects of its parent molecule, tuftsin, while also exhibiting powerful nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) and anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) properties. This makes it a holistic tool for studying the connection between the immune system, stress levels, and mental performance.
This dual functionality is what sets Selank apart. It doesn’t just work on the brain; it operates on the brain-immune axis. This is a concept gaining significant traction in neuroscience, acknowledging that our mental state and immune health are deeply and inextricably linked. When one is out of balance, the other often follows.
How Selank Navigates the Brain: Mechanisms of Action
Selank’s effects aren’t magic; they are the result of its intricate interactions with the brain’s complex neurochemical systems. Its primary mode of action is believed to be the modulation of key neurotransmitters and neurotrophic factors that govern mood, anxiety, and learning.
One of its most significant actions is on the GABAergic system. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the brain’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, responsible for putting the brakes on neural activity and inducing a state of calm. Many traditional anxiolytic drugs, like benzodiazepines, work by directly binding to and activating GABA receptors. Selank appears to work more subtly, by influencing the concentration and metabolism of GABA, promoting a natural state of balance rather than forcing a sedative effect.
Furthermore, Selank has been shown in research to influence the levels of monoamine neurotransmitters—serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. These chemicals are crucial for regulating mood, motivation, and focus. Instead of causing a massive flood or depletion of these neurotransmitters, Selank appears to help normalize their levels, especially in a brain under stress. A 2008 study highlighted its ability to modulate the expression of specific genes involved in these neurotransmitter pathways. (1)
Perhaps most excitingly, research points to Selank’s ability to increase Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF). BDNF is often called “Miracle-Gro for the brain.” It’s a protein that supports the survival of existing neurons and encourages the growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses. Higher levels of BDNF are strongly linked to improved cognition, better memory, and enhanced learning. By upregulating BDNF, Selank may not just improve cognitive function in the short term but also contribute to long-term brain health and neuroplasticity.
The Anxiolytic Power of Selank: More Than Just Calm
The primary reason many researchers are drawn to Selank is its potent anxiolytic effect. In a world where stress is a constant companion, finding effective ways to manage anxiety without debilitating side effects is a top priority. Selank provides a compelling model for this.
Unlike conventional anxiety medications that can cause drowsiness, cognitive impairment, or dependency, Selank has demonstrated anxiolytic effects in animal models without sedation. This is a critical distinction. The goal isn’t to be tranquilized; it’s to be calm and functional. Selank achieves this by reducing the psychological and physiological markers of stress, allowing for a clear and composed mental state.
This effect is particularly pronounced in studies involving models of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and adjustment disorders. The peptide helps to quell the “mental noise” of anxiety—the racing thoughts, the constant worrying, the feeling of being on edge. By silencing this background static, the brain is freed up to allocate its resources more effectively.
This is where the anti-anxiety and pro-cognitive effects merge. Anxiety is the enemy of focus. When your mind is preoccupied with threats, real or perceived, it has very little capacity left for deep work, creative thinking, or memory consolidation. By alleviating the burden of anxiety, Selank indirectly but powerfully enhances cognition. It creates the ideal mental environment for learning and productivity to flourish.
Boosting Cognition and Focus with the Selank Peptide
While its anti-anxiety effects are remarkable, the promise of “effortless focus” is what truly captures the imagination. The Selank peptide isn’t a stimulant in the traditional sense. It doesn’t artificially ramp up your central nervous system like amphetamines or even strong coffee. Instead, it cultivates a state of mind where focus comes naturally.
The mechanism for this cognitive enhancement is multi-faceted. First, as discussed, the reduction in anxiety plays a huge role. A calm mind is a focused mind. Second, the normalization of dopamine and norepinephrine contributes to improved attention, motivation, and mental alertness. You’re not “wired,” but you are switched on and engaged.
Third, the increase in BDNF is a game-changer for learning and memory. Studies have explored Selank’s impact on memory consolidation. For example, research in rats has shown that Selank can improve memory trace formation, a key process in learning. (2) This suggests that the peptide may help the brain better encode and store new information. This neurogenic and neuroplastic effect is central to its nootropic potential.
Subjects in early human studies in Russia reported subjective improvements in mental clarity, a reduction in “brain fog,” and an enhanced ability to concentrate for extended periods. They described the feeling not as one of being stimulated, but of being mentally organized and efficient. The mental energy that was previously spent managing stress and anxiety is liberated and can be directed toward the task at hand.
Selank and Overall Wellbeing: A Holistic Approach
The benefits of the Selank peptide extend beyond immediate anxiety relief and cognitive enhancement. Its influence on the immune system and its neuroprotective qualities contribute to a broader sense of wellbeing. The body and mind are not separate entities; what benefits one often benefits the other.
As an analog of tuftsin, Selank retains immunomodulatory properties. Research suggests it can help balance the immune response, particularly by influencing the production of certain cytokines like Interleukin-6 (IL-6). In situations of high stress, the immune system can become dysregulated, leading to inflammation and increased susceptibility to illness. Selank’s ability to help stabilize the immune response may contribute to greater resilience, both physically and mentally.
Furthermore, its ability to increase BDNF has significant long-term implications. BDNF is profoundly neuroprotective, helping to shield brain cells from damage caused by toxins, inflammation, and stress. By promoting neuronal health and resilience, Selank is a subject of interest for its potential to support long-term cognition and brain vitality. This holistic effect—calming the mind, sharpening focus, balancing the immune system, and protecting the brain—makes Selank a uniquely comprehensive compound for research into peak performance and overall wellbeing.
Selank vs. Semax: A Tale of Two Cousins
When discussing Selank, it’s almost impossible not to mention its close relative, Semax. Both are neuropeptide drugs developed in Russia, and both are renowned for their nootropic effects. However, they have distinct personalities and are typically researched for slightly different purposes. Understanding their differences is key to appreciating Selank’s unique role.
Semax is fundamentally a stimulant, albeit a very clean and non-addictive one. Its primary action is a dramatic increase in BDNF and Nerve Growth Factor (NGF). Researchers investigating Semax are typically focused on raw cognitive horsepower: memory improvement, faster processing speed, and heightened alertness. It is more directly and powerfully nootropic. For those looking to explore a more purely cognitive-enhancing peptide, you can learn more about its powerful cousin, Semax.
Selank, on the other hand, leads with its anxiolytic properties. While it certainly enhances cognition, it does so through a pathway of calm and balance. You could think of it this way:
Semax: Directly boosts the engine of cognition. Selank: Clears the roadblocks of anxiety and stress so the engine can run smoothly.
Because of their complementary effects, many researchers study them in a “stack” or combined protocol. The idea is to use Semax for the direct cognitive lift while using Selank to smooth out any potential overstimulation and provide a calm, focused foundation. This combination is thought to create a synergistic effect, providing a mental state that is both highly energetic and exceptionally stable.
Research Protocols for the Selank Peptide
For laboratory research purposes, the Selank peptide is supplied as a lyophilized (freeze-dried) powder. This ensures its stability during transport and storage. Before it can be used in experiments, it must be carefully reconstituted.
The standard procedure involves reconstituting the powder with bacteriostatic water. The amount of water will depend on the desired concentration for the experiment. Once reconstituted, the solution should be stored in a refrigerator to maintain its integrity and potency. It is crucial to handle the peptide in a sterile environment to prevent contamination.
Researchers typically administer Selank intranasally in animal models. This route of administration is preferred because it allows the peptide to bypass the digestive system and the first-pass metabolism in the liver, enabling it to travel directly to the brain via the olfactory and trigeminal nerves for rapid action. This method has been shown to be highly effective in delivering neuropeptides to the central nervous system. A study published in Doklady Biological Sciences confirmed the presence and effects of Selank in the brains of rats following intranasal administration, validating this method for research. (3)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
1. What is Selank primarily researched for?
Selank is primarily researched for its dual effects as an anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) and nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) agent. It’s studied for its potential to reduce stress and anxiety without causing sedation, while simultaneously improving mental clarity, focus, and memory formation.
2. How does Selank differ from traditional anxiety medications?
Unlike many traditional anxiolytics like benzodiazepines, which can cause drowsiness, cognitive fog, and have a high potential for dependence, Selank has been shown in research models to be non-sedating and non-addictive. It works by modulating neurotransmitter systems like GABA and serotonin in a more balanced way, rather than forcing a strong inhibitory effect on the brain.
3. Is Selank stimulating?
No, Selank is generally not considered a stimulant. Its effect is more accurately described as calming and clarifying. By reducing anxiety and mental “noise,” it allows for a more natural and sustainable state of focus, rather than a forced, jittery stimulation like caffeine or amphetamines.
4. Can Selank and Semax be researched together?
Yes, researchers often study Selank and Semax in combination. They are considered to have complementary actions. Semax provides a direct, potent boost to cognition and alertness, while Selank provides a calm, anxiety-free foundation. This combination is explored for creating a synergistic effect, resulting in a state of high mental performance that is both stable and focused.
Conclusion: A New Paradigm for Focus and Wellbeing
The Selank peptide offers a compelling alternative to the conventional tools for managing stress and enhancing cognition. It operates on a simple yet profound principle: a calm mind is a powerful mind. By gently balancing neurochemistry, reducing anxiety without sedation, and supporting long-term brain health through BDNF, it creates the perfect internal environment for deep focus and sustained mental endurance.
Its unique dual action on both the nervous and immune systems makes it a holistic subject for anyone researching the link between mental state and overall wellbeing. As research continues to unfold, Selank stands out as a sophisticated tool for unlocking a state of clear, calm, and effortless performance.
For researchers dedicated to exploring the cutting edge of cognitive science, Oath Research provides compounds of the highest purity and quality. If you are conducting studies on the powerful effects of neuropeptides on anxiety and cognition, you can find high-purity Selank peptide for your research needs in our catalog.
Disclaimer: All products mentioned in this article, including Selank and Semax, are sold by Oath Research strictly for laboratory and research purposes only. They are not intended for human or animal use. The information provided in this article is for educational and informational purposes and should not be considered medical advice.**
References
1. Uchakina, O. N., Uchakin, P. N., Miasoedov, N. F., & Andreeva, L. A. (2008). Immunomodulatory effects of Selank in patients with anxiety-asthenic disorders. Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S.S. Korsakova, 108(5), 71–75.
2. Semenova, T. P., Kozlovskaya, M. M., Zakharova, N. M., & Kozlovskii, I. I. (2010). The effect of Semax and Selank on the behavior of rats in the Porsolt test. Rossiiskii Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal Imeni I. M. Sechenova, 96(10), 1014–1022.
3. Andreeva, L. A., et al. (2015). Penetration of Selank and its metabolites across the blood-brain barrier in rats. Doklady Biological Sciences, 463*, 190–192.
Selank peptide: Unlock Amazing, Effortless Focus
The Selank peptide represents a cutting-edge frontier in the world of cognitive and emotional regulation. In a landscape filled with harsh stimulants and sedating anxiety solutions, this unique compound offers a different path. It promises a state of calm, clear-headed focus, a mental space where productivity flows effortlessly without the jitters of caffeine or the fog of traditional tranquilizers. For researchers exploring the intricate dance between anxiety and cognition, Selank is a subject of immense interest and potential.
At Oath Research, we’re dedicated to exploring the science behind compounds that push the boundaries of human potential. Selank is a prime example, a molecule that targets the very core of our neurological and immunological systems to foster a state of optimal wellbeing. Let’s dive deep into what makes this particular neuropeptide so compelling for modern research.
What is Selank? The Science Behind the Neuropeptide
To understand Selank, you first need to understand its origin. Selank is a synthetic version of a naturally occurring peptide in the human body called tuftsin. Tuftsin is a small peptide primarily known for its role in the immune system, where it helps stimulate phagocytic cells—the “clean-up crew” that engulfs cellular debris and pathogens.
Developed at the Institute of Molecular Genetics of the Russian Academy of Sciences, researchers took the base tuftsin molecule and added a sequence of three additional amino acids (Proline-Glycine-Proline). This modification was designed to increase its stability and allow it to cross the blood-brain barrier more effectively, giving it profound effects on the central nervous system that tuftsin alone does not possess.
The result is a fascinating dual-action compound. It retains some of the immunomodulatory effects of its parent molecule, tuftsin, while also exhibiting powerful nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) and anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) properties. This makes it a holistic tool for studying the connection between the immune system, stress levels, and mental performance.
This dual functionality is what sets Selank apart. It doesn’t just work on the brain; it operates on the brain-immune axis. This is a concept gaining significant traction in neuroscience, acknowledging that our mental state and immune health are deeply and inextricably linked. When one is out of balance, the other often follows.
How Selank Navigates the Brain: Mechanisms of Action
Selank’s effects aren’t magic; they are the result of its intricate interactions with the brain’s complex neurochemical systems. Its primary mode of action is believed to be the modulation of key neurotransmitters and neurotrophic factors that govern mood, anxiety, and learning.
One of its most significant actions is on the GABAergic system. GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the brain’s primary inhibitory neurotransmitter, responsible for putting the brakes on neural activity and inducing a state of calm. Many traditional anxiolytic drugs, like benzodiazepines, work by directly binding to and activating GABA receptors. Selank appears to work more subtly, by influencing the concentration and metabolism of GABA, promoting a natural state of balance rather than forcing a sedative effect.
Furthermore, Selank has been shown in research to influence the levels of monoamine neurotransmitters—serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine. These chemicals are crucial for regulating mood, motivation, and focus. Instead of causing a massive flood or depletion of these neurotransmitters, Selank appears to help normalize their levels, especially in a brain under stress. A 2008 study highlighted its ability to modulate the expression of specific genes involved in these neurotransmitter pathways. (1)
Perhaps most excitingly, research points to Selank’s ability to increase Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF). BDNF is often called “Miracle-Gro for the brain.” It’s a protein that supports the survival of existing neurons and encourages the growth and differentiation of new neurons and synapses. Higher levels of BDNF are strongly linked to improved cognition, better memory, and enhanced learning. By upregulating BDNF, Selank may not just improve cognitive function in the short term but also contribute to long-term brain health and neuroplasticity.
The Anxiolytic Power of Selank: More Than Just Calm
The primary reason many researchers are drawn to Selank is its potent anxiolytic effect. In a world where stress is a constant companion, finding effective ways to manage anxiety without debilitating side effects is a top priority. Selank provides a compelling model for this.
Unlike conventional anxiety medications that can cause drowsiness, cognitive impairment, or dependency, Selank has demonstrated anxiolytic effects in animal models without sedation. This is a critical distinction. The goal isn’t to be tranquilized; it’s to be calm and functional. Selank achieves this by reducing the psychological and physiological markers of stress, allowing for a clear and composed mental state.
This effect is particularly pronounced in studies involving models of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) and adjustment disorders. The peptide helps to quell the “mental noise” of anxiety—the racing thoughts, the constant worrying, the feeling of being on edge. By silencing this background static, the brain is freed up to allocate its resources more effectively.
This is where the anti-anxiety and pro-cognitive effects merge. Anxiety is the enemy of focus. When your mind is preoccupied with threats, real or perceived, it has very little capacity left for deep work, creative thinking, or memory consolidation. By alleviating the burden of anxiety, Selank indirectly but powerfully enhances cognition. It creates the ideal mental environment for learning and productivity to flourish.
Boosting Cognition and Focus with the Selank Peptide
While its anti-anxiety effects are remarkable, the promise of “effortless focus” is what truly captures the imagination. The Selank peptide isn’t a stimulant in the traditional sense. It doesn’t artificially ramp up your central nervous system like amphetamines or even strong coffee. Instead, it cultivates a state of mind where focus comes naturally.
The mechanism for this cognitive enhancement is multi-faceted. First, as discussed, the reduction in anxiety plays a huge role. A calm mind is a focused mind. Second, the normalization of dopamine and norepinephrine contributes to improved attention, motivation, and mental alertness. You’re not “wired,” but you are switched on and engaged.
Third, the increase in BDNF is a game-changer for learning and memory. Studies have explored Selank’s impact on memory consolidation. For example, research in rats has shown that Selank can improve memory trace formation, a key process in learning. (2) This suggests that the peptide may help the brain better encode and store new information. This neurogenic and neuroplastic effect is central to its nootropic potential.
Subjects in early human studies in Russia reported subjective improvements in mental clarity, a reduction in “brain fog,” and an enhanced ability to concentrate for extended periods. They described the feeling not as one of being stimulated, but of being mentally organized and efficient. The mental energy that was previously spent managing stress and anxiety is liberated and can be directed toward the task at hand.
Selank and Overall Wellbeing: A Holistic Approach
The benefits of the Selank peptide extend beyond immediate anxiety relief and cognitive enhancement. Its influence on the immune system and its neuroprotective qualities contribute to a broader sense of wellbeing. The body and mind are not separate entities; what benefits one often benefits the other.
As an analog of tuftsin, Selank retains immunomodulatory properties. Research suggests it can help balance the immune response, particularly by influencing the production of certain cytokines like Interleukin-6 (IL-6). In situations of high stress, the immune system can become dysregulated, leading to inflammation and increased susceptibility to illness. Selank’s ability to help stabilize the immune response may contribute to greater resilience, both physically and mentally.
Furthermore, its ability to increase BDNF has significant long-term implications. BDNF is profoundly neuroprotective, helping to shield brain cells from damage caused by toxins, inflammation, and stress. By promoting neuronal health and resilience, Selank is a subject of interest for its potential to support long-term cognition and brain vitality. This holistic effect—calming the mind, sharpening focus, balancing the immune system, and protecting the brain—makes Selank a uniquely comprehensive compound for research into peak performance and overall wellbeing.
Selank vs. Semax: A Tale of Two Cousins
When discussing Selank, it’s almost impossible not to mention its close relative, Semax. Both are neuropeptide drugs developed in Russia, and both are renowned for their nootropic effects. However, they have distinct personalities and are typically researched for slightly different purposes. Understanding their differences is key to appreciating Selank’s unique role.
Semax is fundamentally a stimulant, albeit a very clean and non-addictive one. Its primary action is a dramatic increase in BDNF and Nerve Growth Factor (NGF). Researchers investigating Semax are typically focused on raw cognitive horsepower: memory improvement, faster processing speed, and heightened alertness. It is more directly and powerfully nootropic. For those looking to explore a more purely cognitive-enhancing peptide, you can learn more about its powerful cousin, Semax.
Selank, on the other hand, leads with its anxiolytic properties. While it certainly enhances cognition, it does so through a pathway of calm and balance. You could think of it this way:
Semax: Directly boosts the engine of cognition.
Selank: Clears the roadblocks of anxiety and stress so the engine can run smoothly.
Because of their complementary effects, many researchers study them in a “stack” or combined protocol. The idea is to use Semax for the direct cognitive lift while using Selank to smooth out any potential overstimulation and provide a calm, focused foundation. This combination is thought to create a synergistic effect, providing a mental state that is both highly energetic and exceptionally stable.
Research Protocols for the Selank Peptide
For laboratory research purposes, the Selank peptide is supplied as a lyophilized (freeze-dried) powder. This ensures its stability during transport and storage. Before it can be used in experiments, it must be carefully reconstituted.
The standard procedure involves reconstituting the powder with bacteriostatic water. The amount of water will depend on the desired concentration for the experiment. Once reconstituted, the solution should be stored in a refrigerator to maintain its integrity and potency. It is crucial to handle the peptide in a sterile environment to prevent contamination.
Researchers typically administer Selank intranasally in animal models. This route of administration is preferred because it allows the peptide to bypass the digestive system and the first-pass metabolism in the liver, enabling it to travel directly to the brain via the olfactory and trigeminal nerves for rapid action. This method has been shown to be highly effective in delivering neuropeptides to the central nervous system. A study published in Doklady Biological Sciences confirmed the presence and effects of Selank in the brains of rats following intranasal administration, validating this method for research. (3)
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)
1. What is Selank primarily researched for?
Selank is primarily researched for its dual effects as an anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) and nootropic (cognitive-enhancing) agent. It’s studied for its potential to reduce stress and anxiety without causing sedation, while simultaneously improving mental clarity, focus, and memory formation.
2. How does Selank differ from traditional anxiety medications?
Unlike many traditional anxiolytics like benzodiazepines, which can cause drowsiness, cognitive fog, and have a high potential for dependence, Selank has been shown in research models to be non-sedating and non-addictive. It works by modulating neurotransmitter systems like GABA and serotonin in a more balanced way, rather than forcing a strong inhibitory effect on the brain.
3. Is Selank stimulating?
No, Selank is generally not considered a stimulant. Its effect is more accurately described as calming and clarifying. By reducing anxiety and mental “noise,” it allows for a more natural and sustainable state of focus, rather than a forced, jittery stimulation like caffeine or amphetamines.
4. Can Selank and Semax be researched together?
Yes, researchers often study Selank and Semax in combination. They are considered to have complementary actions. Semax provides a direct, potent boost to cognition and alertness, while Selank provides a calm, anxiety-free foundation. This combination is explored for creating a synergistic effect, resulting in a state of high mental performance that is both stable and focused.
Conclusion: A New Paradigm for Focus and Wellbeing
The Selank peptide offers a compelling alternative to the conventional tools for managing stress and enhancing cognition. It operates on a simple yet profound principle: a calm mind is a powerful mind. By gently balancing neurochemistry, reducing anxiety without sedation, and supporting long-term brain health through BDNF, it creates the perfect internal environment for deep focus and sustained mental endurance.
Its unique dual action on both the nervous and immune systems makes it a holistic subject for anyone researching the link between mental state and overall wellbeing. As research continues to unfold, Selank stands out as a sophisticated tool for unlocking a state of clear, calm, and effortless performance.
For researchers dedicated to exploring the cutting edge of cognitive science, Oath Research provides compounds of the highest purity and quality. If you are conducting studies on the powerful effects of neuropeptides on anxiety and cognition, you can find high-purity Selank peptide for your research needs in our catalog.
Disclaimer: All products mentioned in this article, including Selank and Semax, are sold by Oath Research strictly for laboratory and research purposes only. They are not intended for human or animal use. The information provided in this article is for educational and informational purposes and should not be considered medical advice.**
References
1. Uchakina, O. N., Uchakin, P. N., Miasoedov, N. F., & Andreeva, L. A. (2008). Immunomodulatory effects of Selank in patients with anxiety-asthenic disorders. Zhurnal Nevrologii i Psikhiatrii Imeni S.S. Korsakova, 108(5), 71–75.
2. Semenova, T. P., Kozlovskaya, M. M., Zakharova, N. M., & Kozlovskii, I. I. (2010). The effect of Semax and Selank on the behavior of rats in the Porsolt test. Rossiiskii Fiziologicheskii Zhurnal Imeni I. M. Sechenova, 96(10), 1014–1022.
3. Andreeva, L. A., et al. (2015). Penetration of Selank and its metabolites across the blood-brain barrier in rats. Doklady Biological Sciences, 463*, 190–192.